Habitat Rehabilitation in the Great Lakes
Techniques for Enhancing Biodiversity

Significant Biological Parameters

Introduction

This section of the report provides detailed habitat requirements for representative species of reptiles, amphibians, birds and semi-aquatic mammals found in wetlands and along riparian habitats.

A two page summary of each representative species is provided. The first page lists basic life history attributes and the second page provides ideas on fine-tuning habitat rehabilitation projects for that species group. Tables listing all reptiles, amphibians, birds and semi-aquatic mammals found in wetlands and along riparian zones in the Canadian Great Lakes are provided.

Life History Parameters

When considering how to design habitat rehabilitation projects for a variety of species, it is necessary to gain an understanding of life history. With this knowledge in hand, the project can be fine-tuned to provide critical habitat.

The following ten parameters were chosen for describing life history traits and their relationship with habitat rehabilitation project design:

1. Distribution - Some species are widespread across the basin, while others are only locally common, while still others are nearly extirpated in Ontario or at the edge of their geographical range.
2. Home Range - The amount of space required for different species of wildlife varies significantly, depending on the size of the species, and whether it is a herbivore or carnivore.
3. Food - The food a species needs must be adequate to maintain a viable population during the seasons it uses the habitat.
4. Reproduction - Water, banks, soils, rock piles or vegetation should be available to assist species reproduction.
5. Habitat/Cover - For most species, habitat provides food, shelter and breeding substrate. Some species have very precise habitat requirements while others are generalists.
6. Lookout/Sunning - Cold-blooded species like turtles and snakes require rocks and logs to bask on particularly in the early part of the year when air temperatures are still low, while birds require lookout, display and surveillance perches.
7. Connectivity/Corridors - The dispersal of wildlife within the landscape is a normal process. However, because of the destruction of habitats, particularly forests and wetlands in the south, the connection of habitats by corridors is particularly important for many taxa.
8. Hibernation or Migration - Some species become inactive during the winter months and hibernate. The availability of suitable substrate in which to overwinter is essential. Other species remain active and/or migrate from the summer breeding grounds.
9. Hydrology - Water availability at a site is important because it affects water flow rates, the length of time ephemeral ponds exist and the availability of ground water to maintain wetlands.
10. Soils/Substrate - Some species require certain types of soil and substrate to facilitate nesting.

Design Criteria

With an understanding of life history traits, specific design ideas are provided to fine-tune the habitat rehabilitation project to meet the needs of a variety of species.

Six categories were chosen as a basis by which to organize habitat rehabilitation techniques:

1. Vegetation - species preferences, open water vegetation ratios, breeding locations within vegetation
2. Structures - use of nesting platforms, nesting on muskrat houses
3. Soils/slope/substrate - preference for breeding purposes
4. Hydrology - preferred water depths, still or flowing water, need for permanent or temporary water
5. Critical periods - breeding, fledging of young to guide habitat construction
6. Other considerations - conflicts between species, tolerance to human disturbance, etc.

The information provided in this section generally represents the current understanding of species needs in wetland and riparian habitats. The reader is encouraged to design their habitat rehabilitation project with this information in mind, and moreover, to build upon this knowledge base with further observation and experimentation.

*Note: Life history and design criteria parameters were omitted from the detailed species reports if information was not available.

Biological Parameters and Design Criteria for Representative Species

Canadian Great Lakes Turtles, Lizards and Snakes

Canadian Great Lakes Salamanders

Canadian Great Lakes Frogs and Toads

Canadian Great Lakes Shorebirds, Marsh Birds and Dabbling Ducks

Dabbling Ducks

Canadian Great Lakes Semi-aquatic mammals

Canadian Great Lakes Turtles, Lizards and Snakes

The Five-lined skink (Eumeces fasciatus) can be found around Georgian Bay and Lake Erie. The skink breeds in forest floor litter; forages in open woodlands, in sandy areas, along shores of lakes, and islands; hibernates under rock piles, in rock crevices, under logs and in stumps.

The Spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata) can be found around Lakes Ontario, Erie, and north to Georgian Bay. This turtle frequents channels in bogs, marshes, bog lakes and the edges of soft-bottomed bays in lakes, prefers shallow cool waters; needs well-drained soils to lay eggs.

The Wood turtle (Clemmys insculpta) is uncommon in Ontario; it can be found around Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Georgian Bay. Wood turtles are often found on land in open woodlands, meadows and floodplains along gravel-bottomed streams; hibernate in gravel bottomed rivers and in muskrat burrows.

The Eastern Spiny softshell (Trionyx spiniferus) live in isolated populations in southern Ontario, around the Thames River. Eastern spiny softshells are always found in water, usually along broad, slow-moving rivers, in soft-bottomed bays or ponds; lays eggs on beaches and in banks of canals or drainage ditches very close to the water.

The Stinkpot turtle (Sternotherus odoratus) in found in Southern Ontario, around the Thames River. These turtles are found in shallow bays, ponds, marshes and weedy streams, rarely seen out of water; active at night feeding on variety of prey; muskrat lodges are favourite for nesting.

The Map turtle (Graptemys geographica) can be found in Southern Ontario, around the Thames River. This turtle is found in large, slow-moving rivers, large open marshes and soft-bottomed lakes; need sandy egg-laying sites.

The Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) is found up to north channel Lake Huron and the north-west shore of Lake Superior. It is found anywhere there is slow-moving or permanent impoundments of water, preferably with muddy bottoms; opportunistic feeder including scavenging on carrion; hibernates on bottom of ponds or in excavations along banks of rivers; need well-drained soils for egg-laying.

Blanding's turtle (Emydoidea blandingi) is found around Lakes Ontario, Erie, with some occurrence in Lake Huron. It prefers secluded bays, lakes and large open marshes with little human intrusion; feeds on tadpoles, frogs, carrion, snails, crayfish and aquatic insects.

The Northern brown snake (Storeria dekayi) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin except Lake Superior. This snake is found in woodlands, old fields, meadows, ravines, and vacant lots; it feeds on slugs and earthworms.

The Northern redbelly snake (Storeria occiptoma-culta) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin except Lake Superior. It is found in or along edges of woodlands, also valleylands; feeds on earthworms, slugs, and insect grubs.

The Northern water snake (Nerodia sipedon) ranges throughout Great Lakes Basin expect Lake Superior. This snake is found along rivers, lakes, bays, marshes, bogs, and swamps; feeds on frogs fish, and tadpoles. There is a dark race of Lake Erie water snakes Nerodia sipedon insularum.

The Queen snake (Regina septemvittata) is found in rivers flowing into Lake Erie and Lake Huron. The Queen snake is found at edge of rocky bays or in clear rocky streams; feed on soft young or newly moulted crayfish; active mainly at night, under flat rocks during day, hibernate along streams.

The Eastern Garter snake (Thamnophis sirtallis) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin. It is found in a variety of habitats, opportunistic feeders; move to hibernate first two weeks of October.

Butler's Garter snake (Thamnophis butleri) is found in the Windsor-Sarnia-Lake St. Clair area. It prefers prairie-like grasslands, wet meadows, roadsides, and open marshes.

The Northern Ribbon snake (Thamnophis sauritus septentrio-nalis) is found around Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron including the north channel. It is found in woodlands, margins of ponds, marshes, bogs and streams; preys on fish, frogs, tadpoles and salamanders.

The Eastern Hognose snake (Heterodon platyrhinos) is found around Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. This snake is found in fields and open woodlands where soils are sandy; toads are main prey.

The Northern Ringneck snake (Diadophis punctatus) can be found around all the Great Lakes, but only the west shore of Lake Superior. It is found near woodland marshes and bogs; preys on salamanders.

The Smooth Green snake (Opheodrys vernalis) is found around Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. This snake is found in wet meadows, fields, edges of open woodlands, near marshes and ponds; feed on spiders, caterpillars and grasshoppers.

The Fox snake (Elaphe vulpina gloydi) is found on islands and shorelines in Lake Erie and Georgian Bay. It prefers woodland-marsh interface; feeds on frogs, mice, birds, young rabbits, and squirrels; hibernates in old buildings, abandoned wells, rock piles, and under stumps.

The Black Rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta) is found around Lake Erie, and Kingston, in addition to a St. Lawrence population. This snake is found in old pastures, around farms, where field and forest meet; feeds on mice, voles, birds (constrictor); hibernates under rock piles, rock crevices, old buildings, and rotting stumps.

The Eastern Milk snake (Lampropeltis tachetee) is found around Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. It is found in fields, around farms, and open woodlots; feeds on rodents, and young snakes; hibernates in foundations of old buildings.

The Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus) ranges in a 25 km strip along shores of Georgian Bay, Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair; there is a small population in Wainfleet bog near Port Colborne. The rattlesnake is found in open clearings near woodlands; feeds on small mammals.

The Blue Racer (Coluber constrictor foxi) is found on Pelee Island. The racer is found in prairie-like habitat; feeds on birds, voles, mice, frogs and other snakes; hibernates in rock piles.

Map Turtle - Graptemys serpentina

Distribution

Widespread in the Great Lakes / St. Lawrence watershed.

Home Range

Home range size is larger for females (about 70 ha) than males (about 30 ha) and includes hibernation, basking, nesting and feeding areas.

Food

The preferred food is molluscs. Some insects, crayfish, fish carrion and plant material are also eaten.
Males feed from May through August or September. Breeding females begin feeding after eggs are laid (July).

Reproduction

Breeding may occur in late fall or early spring in the vicinity of hibernacula. Nests are dug mid-May to late July.
Hatching occurs in 60-75 days. In parts of their range, two clutches are laid but this is not known from Ontario.
Deposit eggs on or within 100 m of shoreline of lakes and streams.

Cover/Habitat

At night adults rest on submerged logs in deep water.
Hatchlings require vegetative cover between nest sites and water's edge.

Lookout/Sunning

Adults bask on stationary, partially submerged logs, branches and rocks. Preferred sites are off shore, near deep water, sunny, with a good view of surrounding area, and a southern or easterly orientation.
Basking is important for gravid females in spring for the successful development of their eggs. In fall, basking aids adults in completing food digestion prior to hibernating. People should stay 70-80 m away to avoid disturbing basking turtles.

Connectivity/Corridors

Adults may travel up to 4 km among hibernation, nesting and feeding habitats. Aquatic corridors are required for movement.

Hibernation

Adults hibernate communally under water, often in the deepest water available. Rock piles or depressions may be necessary to provide protection, or prevent silting or ice scouring. Hatchlings are not freeze tolerant and are not known to over winter in the nest.

Hydrology

Adults generally range in deeper water and further from shore than Painted or Blanding's turtles. Juveniles use shallower, near shore areas.

Soils/Substrate

In some areas, they prefer basking sites with roots and stumps
rather than bare soil or rocks below.
Nest are dug in friable soil with no large rocks, or roots,
on a shoreline in full sunlight.

Design Criteria

References

• Bonin, J., S. Poulin, J. R. Bider. 1991. Etude et Protection de l'Habitat de la Tortue Geographique du Lac des DeuxMontagnes. Rapport de la Societe d'Histoire Naturelle de la Vallee du SaintLaurent. 31 pp.
• Chaney, A., and C. L. Smith. 1950. Methods for Collecting Map turtles. Copiea 1950 (4): 323324.
• Cook, F. R. 1984. Introduction to Canadian Amphibians and Reptiles. Ottawa, Canada: National Museum of Natural Sciences.
• Flaherty, N. C. 1982. Home Range, Movement, and Habitat Selection in a Population of Map Turtle, Graptemys geographica (Le Sueur), in Southwestern Quebec. MSc. Thesis. McGill University, Montreal.
• Flaherty, N., and J. R. Bider. 1984. Physical Structures and the Social Factor as Determinants of Habitat Use by Graptemys geographica in Southwestern Quebec. American Midland Naturalist 111 (2): 259266.
• Graham, T. E., A. R. Graham. 1992. Metabolism and Behaviour of Wintering Common Map Turtles, Graptemys geographica, in Vermont. Canadian Field Naturalist 106(4): 517519.
• Gordon, D. M., and R. D. MacCulloch. 1980. An Investigation of the Ecology of the Map Turtle, Graptemys geographica (Le Sueur), in the Northern part of its Range. Canadian Journal of Zoology 58: 22102219.
• Pluto, T. G., and E. D. Bellis. 1986. Habitat Utilization by the Turtle, Graptemys geographica, Along a River. Journal of Herpetology 20 (1): 2231.
• --. 1988. Seasonal and Annual Movements of Riverine Map Turtles, Graptemys geographica. Journal of Herpetology 22 (2): 152158.
• Vogt, R. C. 1980. Natural History of the Map Turtles Graptemys pseudogeographica and G. ouachitensis in Wisconsin. Tulane Studies in Zoology and Botany 22 (1): 1748.
• Weller, W. F., M. J. Oldham. 1988. Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary: 1986. Cambridge, Ontario: Ontario Field Herpetologists. 221 pp.

Blanding's Turtle - Emydoidea blandingi

Distribution

Rare and local in Ontario.

Home Range

Have been known to travel several kilometres through difficult rocky habitat.

Food

Feed on minnows, tadpoles, crustaceans, insects and other aquatic life in water.
On land feed on berries, tender shoots of plants, larval insects, insects and snails.

Reproduction

Lay eggs in June or early July. Female returns to same general nesting area each year.
Nest may be up to 1 km from nearest water body (average 135 m) and are not usually adjacent to a female's marsh residence.

Cover/Habitat

Lake shallows, ponds, marshes and creeks with soft bottoms and dense aquatic vegetation.
Surrounding natural habitat is important for estivation (feed and sit in vegetation during summer - moving to and from the water); therefore, just a wetland may not be enough.

Lookout/Sunning Requirements

Bask on muskrat houses, stumps, logs, driftwood, and may come on land to bask.

Connectivity/Corridors

Wanderings on land may lead to road kills.

Hibernation

Hibernate under water in mud, and may be found at entrances of muskrat houses.

Hydrology

Prefer still, shallow water.

Soils/Substrate

Sand, sandy soil, or gravel are required for digging nests.

Design Criteria

References

• From, B. 1976. The Turtles of Canada. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto.
• Kofron, C.P. and A.A. Schreiber. 1985. Ecology of two endangered aquatic turtles in Missouri: Kinosternon flavescens and Emydoidea blandingii. J. Herp. 19(1): 2740.
• Oldham, M.J. and D.A. Sutherland. 1986. Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary. Essex Region Conservation Authority and World Wildlife Fund Canada, Toronto.

Painted Turtle - Chrysemys picta

Distribution

Midland sub-species found in southern Ontario.
Western sub-species found in southwestern Ontario.

Home Range

Fluctuates based on conditions available - will seek out best conditions.
Not territorial.

Food

Omnivorous, equally divided between plant and animal sources - eats aquatic invertebrates, frogs, small fish, and aquatic plants (no plant preference).
Walk on floating vegetation mats to feed.
Feed when water temperature is above 15 C.

Reproduction

Breeding starts in late May to early June, when temperature is 8 C.

Cover/Habitat

Porous and yielding vegetation mat preferred for easy access and escape.

Lookout/Sunning

Bask in large groups on logs in ponds, rocks, or floating vegetation.

Connectivity/Corridors

Average nest is 60 m from edge of marsh.

Hibernation

Adults use muddy bottom of permanent bodies of water or semi-permanent if there is adequate precipitation in the fall.
Hatchlings overwinter in their nest.

Hydrology

Permanent body of water in which ice does not reach to the bottom.
Avoid open water, will cross deep water either just above submerged vegetation or the substrate.

Soils/Substrate

Muddy bottom for burrowing to hibernate, and as anchor for plants used for basking and feeding.
Sandy, loose soil with adequate drainage required for nesting sites.

Design Criteria

References

• Conant, R. and J.T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Houghton, Mifflin, Boston, MA.
• Congdon, J.D and Gatten Jr., R.E. 1989. Movements and energetics of nesting Chrysemys picta. Herpetologica. 45(1): 94-100.
• Froom, B. 1976. The Turtles of Canada. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto.
• Mitchell, J.C. 1988. Population ecology and life histories of the freshwater turtles Chrysemys picta and Sternotherus odoratus in an urban lake. Herp. Monog. 2: 4061.
• Sexton, O.J. 1959. Spatial and temporal movements of a population of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta marginata (Agassiz). Ecol. Monog. 29: 113140.

Northern Water Snake - Nerodia sipedon

Distribution

Southern Ontario, as far north as Algoma, Sudbury, and Lake Nipissing.
Uncommon and widespread, but probably under-recorded.

Home Range

Figures vary considerably, they may move hundreds of yards in a short period and then not move for days.
Home range of 5.4 ha with concentrated core area of 7.7% has been documented.

Food

Diet consists of almost exclusively minnows, small fish and amphibians.
Feed at night offshore where there are thick vegetation mats and emergent plants which provide good feeding areas.

Reproduction

Breed late April or early May. Live young born late August. Commonly mate on beaver dams or lodges.

Cover/Habitat

Cattails (Typhus latifolia) and flooded grass clumps (primarily Phalaris spp. and Carex spp.).

Lookout/Sunning

Bask in shrubs, low trees, driftwood, on loose rocks adjacent to water, wharfs, docks, stone walls, beaver lodges, dried cattail stems, causeways, and most shallow areas.
Maximum basking temperature is 33 C.

Hibernation

Use fissures and crevices in limestone, brush piles, shoreline ledges, rock piles in abandoned quarries, old cisterns, sink holes, hollow logs, stone causeways, flood walls, levees, ant mounds, crayfish burrows, muskrat bank burrows, muskrat and beaver lodges and meadow vole tunnels which allow access to areas deep enough to avoid freezing.
Sites may be several hundred metres away from their summertime home range
Begin to move to sites in mid to late September and emerge in the spring soon after ground covering of snow melts in mid to late April.

Hydrology

Most abundant in quiet waters, but also found in swift flowing streams.
Avoid open water.

Soils/Substrate

Various, including rock, gravel, sand, and mud.

Design Criteria

References

• Barry, F.E., P.J. Weatherhead and D.P. Philipp. 1992. Multiple paternity in a wild population of northern water snakes, Nerodia sipedon. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 30: 55-71.
• Brown, E.E. 1958. Feeding habits of the northern water snake, Natrix sipedon Linnaeus. Zoologica 43: 55-71.
• Ernst, C.H. and R.W. Barbour. 1989. Snakes of eastern North America. George Mason University Press, Fairfax, VA.
• Feaver, P.E. 1977. The demography of a Michigan population of Natrix sipedon with discussions of ophidian growth and reproduction. ph.D. Dissertation. Dept. of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
• Ontario Hydro. 1981. Ontario Hydro field guide to endangered, threatened and rare species in Ontario. Environmental Resources Section, Dept. of Transmission Environment.
• Plourde, S.A., Szepesi, E.L., Riley, J.L., Oldham, M.J., and Campbell, C. 1989. Distribution and Status of the Herpetofauna of Central Region, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Queen's Printer, Ontario.
• Raney, E.C. and R.M. Roecker. 1947. Food and growth of two species of watersnakes from western New York. Copeia 1947: 171-174.
• Robertson, I.C., and P.J. Weatherhead. 1992. The role of temperature in microhabitat selection by northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon). Can. J. Zool. 70: 417422.
• Tiebout, H.M.I., and J.R. Cary. 1987. Dynamic spatial ecology of the water snake, Nerodia sipedon. Copeia. 1987(1): 118.
• Tyning, T.F. 1990. A guide to amphibians and reptiles. Little, Brown, Boston, MA.

Map Turtle - Graptemys serpentina

Distribution

Widespread in the Great Lakes / St. Lawrence watershed.

Home Range

Home range size is larger for females (about 70 ha) than males (about 30 ha) and includes hibernation, basking, nesting and feeding areas.

Food

The preferred food is molluscs. Some insects, crayfish, fish carrion and plant material are also eaten.
Males feed from May through August or September. Breeding females begin feeding after eggs are laid (July).

Reproduction

Breeding may occur in late fall or early spring in the vicinity of hibernacula. Nests are dug mid-May to late July.
Hatching occurs in 60-75 days. In parts of their range, two clutches are laid but this is not known from Ontario.
Deposit eggs on or within 100 m of shoreline of lakes and streams.

Cover/Habitat

At night adults rest on submerged logs in deep water.
Hatchlings require vegetative cover between nest sites and water's edge.

Lookout/Sunning

Adults bask on stationary, partially submerged logs, branches and rocks. Preferred sites are off shore, near deep water, sunny, with a good view of surrounding area, and a southern or easterly orientation.
Basking is important for gravid females in spring for the successful development of their eggs. In fall, basking aids adults in completing food digestion prior to hibernating. People should stay 70-80 m away to avoid disturbing basking turtles.

Connectivity/Corridors

Adults may travel up to 4 km among hibernation, nesting and feeding habitats. Aquatic corridors are required for movement.

Hibernation

Adults hibernate communally under water, often in the deepest water available. Rock piles or depressions may be necessary to provide protection, or prevent silting or ice scouring. Hatchlings are not freeze tolerant and are not known to over winter in the nest.

Hydrology

Adults generally range in deeper water and further from shore than Painted or Blanding's turtles. Juveniles use shallower, near shore areas.

Soils/Substrate

In some areas, they prefer basking sites with roots and stumps rather than bare soil or rocks below.
Nest are dug in friable soil with no large rocks, or roots, on a shoreline in full sunlight.

Design Criteria

References

• Bonin, J., S. Poulin, J. R. Bider. 1991. Etude et Protection de l'Habitat de la Tortue Geographique du Lac des DeuxMontagnes. Rapport de la Societe d'Histoire Naturelle de la Vallee du SaintLaurent. 31 pp.
• Chaney, A., and C. L. Smith. 1950. Methods for Collecting Map turtles. Copiea 1950 (4): 323324.
• Cook, F. R. 1984. Introduction to Canadian Amphibians and Reptiles. Ottawa, Canada: National Museum of Natural Sciences.
• Flaherty, N. C. 1982. Home Range, Movement, and Habitat Selection in a Population of Map Turtle, Graptemys geographica (Le Sueur), in Southwestern Quebec. MSc. Thesis. McGill University, Montreal.
• Flaherty, N., and J. R. Bider. 1984. Physical Structures and the Social Factor as Determinants of Habitat Use by Graptemys geographica in Southwestern Quebec. American Midland Naturalist 111 (2): 259266.
• Graham, T. E., A. R. Graham. 1992. Metabolism and Behaviour of Wintering Common Map Turtles, Graptemys geographica, in Vermont. Canadian Field Naturalist 106(4): 517519.
• Gordon, D. M., and R. D. MacCulloch. 1980. An Investigation of the Ecology of the Map Turtle, Graptemys geographica (Le Sueur), in the Northern part of its Range. Canadian Journal of Zoology 58: 22102219.
• Pluto, T. G., and E. D. Bellis. 1986. Habitat Utilization by the Turtle, Graptemys geographica, Along a River. Journal of Herpetology 20 (1): 2231.
• . 1988. Seasonal and Annual Movements of Riverine Map Turtles, Graptemys geographica. Journal of Herpetology 22 (2): 152158.
• Vogt, R. C. 1980. Natural History of the Map Turtles Graptemys pseudogeographica and G. ouachitensis in Wisconsin. Tulane Studies in Zoology and Botany 22 (1): 1748.
• Weller, W. F., M. J. Oldham. 1988. Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary: 1986. Cambridge, Ontario: Ontario Field Herpetologists. 221 pp.

Blanding's Turtle - Emydoidea blandingi

Distribution

Rare and local in Ontario.

Home Range

Have been known to travel several kilometres through difficult rocky habitat.

Food

Feed on minnows, tadpoles, crustaceans, insects and other aquatic life in water.
On land feed on berries, tender shoots of plants, larval insects, insects and snails.

Reproduction

Lay eggs in June or early July. Female returns to same general nesting area each year.
Nest may be up to 1 km from nearest water body (average 135 m) and are not usually adjacent to a female's marsh residence.

Cover/Habitat

Lake shallows, ponds, marshes and creeks with soft bottoms and dense aquatic vegetation.
Surrounding natural habitat is important for estivation (feed and sit in vegetation during summer - moving to and from the water); therefore, just a wetland may not be enough.

Lookout/Sunning Requirements

Bask on muskrat houses, stumps, logs, driftwood, and may come on land to bask.

Connectivity/Corridors

Wanderings on land may lead to road kills.

Hibernation

Hibernate under water in mud, and may be found at entrances of muskrat houses.

Hydrology

Prefer still, shallow water.

Soils/Substrate

Sand, sandy soil, or gravel are required for digging nests.

Design Criteria

References

• From, B. 1976. The Turtles of Canada. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto.
• Kofron, C.P. and A.A. Schreiber. 1985. Ecology of two endangered aquatic turtles in Missouri: Kinosternon flavescens and Emydoidea blandingii. J. Herp. 19(1): 2740.
• Oldham, M.J. and D.A. Sutherland. 1986. Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary. Essex Region Conservation Authority and World Wildlife Fund Canada, Toronto.

Painted Turtle - Chrysemys picta

Distribution

Midland sub-species found in southern Ontario.
Western sub-species found in southwestern Ontario.

Home Range

Fluctuates based on conditions available - will seek out best conditions.
Not territorial.

Food

Omnivorous, equally divided between plant and animal sources - eats aquatic invertebrates, frogs, small fish, and aquatic plants (no plant preference).
Walk on floating vegetation mats to feed.
Feed when water temperature is above 15 C.

Reproduction

Breeding starts in late May to early June, when temperature is 8 C.

Cover/Habitat

Porous and yielding vegetation mat preferred for easy access and escape.

Lookout/Sunning

Bask in large groups on logs in ponds, rocks, or floating vegetation.

Connectivity/Corridors

Average nest is 60 m from edge of marsh.

Hibernation

Adults use muddy bottom of permanent bodies of water or semi-permanent if there is adequate precipitation in the fall.
Hatchlings overwinter in their nest.

Hydrology

Permanent body of water in which ice does not reach to the bottom.
Avoid open water, will cross deep water either just above submerged vegetation or the substrate.

Soils/Substrate

Muddy bottom for burrowing to hibernate, and as anchor for plants used for basking and feeding.
Sandy, loose soil with adequate drainage required for nesting sites.

Design Criteria

References

• Conant, R. and J.T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Houghton, Mifflin, Boston, MA.
• Congdon, J.D and Gatten Jr., R.E. 1989. Movements and energetics of nesting Chrysemys picta. Herpetologica. 45(1): 94-100.
• Froom, B. 1976. The Turtles of Canada. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto.
• Mitchell, J.C. 1988. Population ecology and life histories of the freshwater turtles Chrysemys picta and Sternotherus odoratus in an urban lake. Herp. Monog. 2: 4061.
• Sexton, O.J. 1959. Spatial and temporal movements of a population of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta marginata (Agassiz). Ecol. Monog. 29: 113140.

Northern Water Snake - Nerodia sipedon

Distribution

Southern Ontario, as far north as Algoma, Sudbury, and Lake Nipissing.
Uncommon and widespread, but probably under-recorded.

Home Range

Figures vary considerably, they may move hundreds of yards in a short period and then not move for days.
Home range of 5.4 ha with concentrated core area of 7.7% has been documented.

Food

Diet consists of almost exclusively minnows, small fish and amphibians.
Feed at night offshore where there are thick vegetation mats and emergent plants which provide good feeding areas.

Reproduction

Breed late April or early May. Live young born late August. Commonly mate on beaver dams or lodges.

Cover/Habitat

Cattails (Typhus latifolia) and flooded grass clumps (primarily Phalaris spp. and Carex spp.).

Lookout/Sunning

Bask in shrubs, low trees, driftwood, on loose rocks adjacent to water, wharfs, docks, stone walls, beaver lodges, dried cattail stems, causeways, and most shallow areas.
Maximum basking temperature is 33 C.

Hibernation

Use fissures and crevices in limestone, brush piles, shoreline ledges, rock piles in abandoned quarries, old cisterns, sink holes, hollow logs, stone causeways, flood walls, levees, ant mounds, crayfish burrows, muskrat bank burrows, muskrat and beaver lodges and meadow vole tunnels which allow access to areas deep enough to avoid freezing.
Sites may be several hundred metres away from their summertime home range
Begin to move to sites in mid to late September and emerge in the spring soon after ground covering of snow melts in mid to late April.

Hydrology

Most abundant in quiet waters, but also found in swift flowing streams.
Avoid open water.

Soils/Substrate

Various, including rock, gravel, sand, and mud.

Design Criteria

References

• Barry, F.E., P.J. Weatherhead and D.P. Philipp. 1992. Multiple paternity in a wild population of northern water snakes, Nerodia sipedon. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 30: 55-71.
• Brown, E.E. 1958. Feeding habits of the northern water snake, Natrix sipedon Linnaeus. Zoologica 43: 55-71.
• Ernst, C.H. and R.W. Barbour. 1989. Snakes of eastern North America. George Mason University Press, Fairfax, VA.
• Feaver, P.E. 1977. The demography of a Michigan population of Natrix sipedon with discussions of ophidian growth and reproduction. ph.D. Dissertation. Dept. of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
• Ontario Hydro. 1981. Ontario Hydro field guide to endangered, threatened and rare species in Ontario. Environmental Resources Section, Dept. of Transmission Environment.
• Plourde, S.A., Szepesi, E.L., Riley, J.L., Oldham, M.J., and Campbell, C. 1989. Distribution and Status of the Herpetofauna of Central Region, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. Queen's Printer, Ontario.
• Raney, E.C. and R.M. Roecker. 1947. Food and growth of two species of watersnakes from western New York. Copeia 1947: 171-174.
• Robertson, I.C., and P.J. Weatherhead. 1992. The role of temperature in microhabitat selection by northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon). Can. J. Zool. 70: 417422.
• Tiebout, H.M.I., and J.R. Cary. 1987. Dynamic spatial ecology of the water snake, Nerodia sipedon. Copeia. 1987(1): 118.
• Tyning, T.F. 1990. A guide to amphibians and reptiles. Little, Brown, Boston, MA.

Canadian Great Lakes Salamanders

(Bold type indicates habitat requirements provided)

The Yellow-spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin. It prefers cool woodlands; breeds in temporary and permanent water free of predatory fish; forages in woodlands; hibernates on land often in burrows.

Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jefferisonanium) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin. It prefers cool woodlands; breeds in temporary and permanent water free of predatory fish; forages in woodlands; hibernates on land often in burrows.

The Blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterale) is found throughout the Great Lakes Basin. This salamander prefers cool woodlands; breeds in temporary and permanent water free of predatory fish; forages in woodlands; hibernates on land often in burrows.

The Mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus) is found south of the north shore of Lake Superior. The mudpuppy is always found in water; frequents permanent water in bottom of riverside marshes, weedy ponds and lakes; forages in water at night; active during winter.

The Red-spotted newt (Notophlalmus viridiscens) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin. It frequents soft-bottomed, grass-edged permanent ponds with an abundance of littoral vegetation and no predatory fish; adults forage in water, eft stage in woodlands; overwinters in eft stage on land in moist soils, adults overwinter in ponds, often active during winter.

The Eastern red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin. This salamander prefers cool woodlands; breeds on land associated with good woodfall and moist stumps (perched water tables); forages amongst leaf litter and in decaying logs; overwinters in woodlands.

The Four-toed salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum) is found predominantly in Georgian Bay. It breeds in woodland pools; forages in moss in bogs or under rocks and logs in mossy seepage areas and marshy woodlands; hibernates on land amongst leaf litter and decaying wood.

Representative Species - Canadian Great Lakes Salamanders

Yellow-spotted Salamander - Ambystoma maculatum

Distribution

Widespread in southern and central Ontario but have been found as far north as the Sudbury area.

Home Range

Adults likely maintain small home ranges during the summer (a few square metres), avoiding others of the same species except during the breeding season.

May remain below ground in burrows or tunnels all year except during breeding season.

Food

Adults eat mainly invertebrates (e.g. earthworms, spiders, insects, snails and slugs)

Larvae are generalized predators and have even been reported to eat minnows.

Reproduction

Successful breeding ponds are highly variable but tend to be semi-permanent ponds with at least some submerged vegetation

Breed in early spring as soon as snow melts (March to April) in shallow ponds.

Individuals always breed in the same pond.

Breeding period can last from one week to one month.

Females lay one or more compact egg masses on submerged vegetation.

Cover/Habitat

Deciduous or mixed hardwood forest.

Adults are secretive remaining in burrows during the day.

The entire population will likely live in a small area (5-10 ha) around a breeding pond, although adults may migrate up to half a kilometre to a breeding site.

Lookout/Sunning

Do not bask.

Connectivity/Corridors

Very little movement except during breeding season.

May follow creeks to breeding pond.

Require wooded habitat to move through between summer habitat and breeding ponds (up to one half a kilometre).

Hibernation

Adults likely hibernate in burrows.

Larvae may overwinter before transforming in some locations.

Hydrology

Semi-permanent ponds required for larvae to successfully transform, however adults have been known to breed in roadside ditches.

If breeding ponds temporary, must ensure that larvae will transform before pond dries up.

Soils/Substrate

Adults do not dig their own burrows but make use of small mammal burrows.

Soils must be such to allow burrowing of small mammals, and minimize temperature and moisture variability (e.g. loams).

Design Criteria

References

• Bishop, S. C. 1941. The Salamanders of New York. New York: New York State Museum Bulletin No. 324.
• Clark, K. L. 1986. Responses of Spotted Salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, populations in central Ontario to habitat acidity. Canadian Field Naturalist 100 (4): 463469.
• Cook, F. R. 1984. Introduction to Canadian Amphibians and Reptiles. Ottawa, Canada: National Museum of Natural Sciences.
• Dale, J. M., B. Freedman, and J. Kerekes. 1985. Acidity and associated water chemistry of amphibian habitats in Nova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Zoology 63: 97105.
• Ducey, P. K., and P. Ritsema. 1988. Intraspecific aggression and responses to marked substrates in Ambystoma maculatum (Caudata: Ambystomatidae). Copeia 1988 (4): 10081013.
• Hustig, E. L. 1965. Survival and breeding structure in a population of Ambystoma maculatum. Copeia 1965 (3): 352362.
• Pough, F. H. 1976. Acid precipitation and embryonic mortality of spotted salamanders, Ambystoma maculatum. Science 192: 6870.
• Sexton, O. J., C. Phillips, and J. E. Bramble. 1990. Effects of temperature and precipitation on the breeding migration of the Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum). Copeia 1990 (3): 781787.
• Stenhouse, S. L. 1985. Interdemic variation in predation on salamander larvae. Ecology 66 (6): 17061717.
• Thompson, E. L., and J. E. Gates. 1982. Breeding pool segregation by the mole salamanders, Ambystoma jeffersonianum and A. maculatum, in a region of sympatry. Oikos 38:273-279.
• Weller, W. F., M. J. Oldham. 1988. Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary: 1986. Cambridge, Ontario: Ontario Field Herpetologists. 221 pp.
• Whitford, W. G., and A. Vinegar. 1966. Homing, survivorship, and overwintering of larvae in Spotted Salamanders, Ambystoma maculatum. Copeia 1966: 515519.

Mudpuppy - Necturus maculosus

Distribution

Found along the edge of the Great Lakes and adjacent waterways.

Have been found as far north as North Bay (Lake Nipissing).

Home Range

Completely aquatic, lives in rivers, major creeks, some lakes.

Individuals can live entire life in small stretch (likely less than one kilometre) of one river.

Food

Adults eat mainly invertebrates (e.g. insects, earthworms, and crustaceans) and small fish.

Juveniles feed mainly on insects and their larvae.

Reproduction

Breeding occurs in the fall (September to October, but may extend into December) with internal fertilization of the females.

Egg laying, however, does not occur until the following spring (May to June).

Females attach eggs singly to the underside of debris for protection (rocks, logs, even galvanized metal).

Females will stay with the eggs until they hatch.

Eggs will hatch in 6-8 weeks in general.

Cover/Habitat

Always associated with some form of aquatic cover (logs, rocks, or even bottom vegetation).

More often found in pools than riffles, likely because of available cover rather than depth.

May favour human alterations such as bridges which provide extra cover for them.

Siltation has been identified as being a problem, likely because of covering up nests.

Lookout/Sunning

Completely aquatic -- do not bask, however, nests require open areas that can be warmed by sunlight.

Connectivity/Corridors

Creek habitats must be permanent.

Individuals do not appear to migrate on streams although some seasonal movement may occur.

Hibernation

Are active all winter.

Can survive in water with very low oxygen concentrations.

Hydrology

Nest in shallow water (1m).

Water body must not freeze solid.

In streams, juveniles more apt to be found in deep pools.

During winter mudpuppies are found in waters with slow to moderate current, often near outlets.

Soils/Substrate

Require rocks or other debris in the stream substrate for shelter and for egg laying.

Design Criteria

References

• Bishop, S. C. 1941. The Salamanders of New York. New York: New York State Museum Bulletin No. 324.
• Cook, F. R. 1984. Introduction to Canadian Amphibians and Reptiles. Ottawa, Canada: National Museum of Natural Sciences.
• Fitch, K. L. 1959. Observations on the Nesting Habits of the Mudpuppy, Necturus maculosus Rafinesque. Copeia 1959 (4): 339340.
• Gibbons, J. W. 1968. Observations on the Mudpuppy, Necturus maculosus, in a Michigan Lake. The American Midland Naturalist 80 (2): 562564.
• Shoop, C. R. 1965. Aspects of Reproduction in Louisiana Necturus Populations. The American Midland Naturalist 74 (2): 357367.
• Shoop, C. R., and G. E. Gunning. 1967. Seasonal Activity and Movements of Necturus in Louisiana. Copeia 1967 (4): 732737.
• Ultsch, G. R., and J. T. Duke. 1990. Gas Exchange and Habitat Selection in the Aquatic Salamanders Necturus maculosus and Cryptobranchus alleganiensis. Oecologia 83: 250258.
• Weller, W. F., M. J. Oldham. 1988. Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary: 1986. Cambridge, Ontario: Ontario Field Herpetologists. 221 pp.

Red-spotted Newt - Notophthalamus viridescens

Distribution

Southwestern Ontario.
Cryptic and not readily located, so numbers may be underestimated.

Home Range

Variable depending on geographical location and habitat quality.
Population of 2000 used 1 ha of a 15 ha lake.
Average eft home range 270 m2, density of 300 efts/ha.

Food

Opportunistic and carnivorous at all life stages. Newts forage at all levels of the water column and in the substrate. Efts look on soil surface, upper litter layer, and on low vegetation when forest floor is moist.

Reproduction

Breed from March to August. Lay eggs on underwater plant stems and leaves in shallow water.

Cover/Habitat

Terrestrial eft habitat may be up to 800 m from water. Mixed and deciduous forests.
Shallow water with a fair amount of submerged vegetation. Broad-leafed, floating plants such as water lilies are not suitable.

Connectivity

Efts migrating from water to terrestrial habitat follow stream beds or moist depressions.

Hibernation

Overwinter on land. Adults - beneath logs, rocks, or leaf litter, or in mammal burrows or natural crevices below the ground. Efts - in leaf litter.

Hydrology

Permanent water bodies which are wet long enough for development to the eft stage.

Soils/Substrate

Prefer mud bottoms, but will use rocky and sandy bottoms.

Design Criteria

References

• Behler, J.L., and F.W. King. 1992. The Audubon Society field guide to North American reptiles and amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
• Bishop, S.C. 1941. The salamanders of New York. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 324: 1365.
• Burton, T.M. 1977. Population estimates, feeding habits, and nutrient and energy relationships of Notophthalamus viridescens, in Mirror Lake, New Hampshire. Copeia. 1977(1): 139143.
• Gates, J.E., and E.L. Thompson. 1982. Small pool habitat selection by redspotted newts in Western Maryland. J. Herp. 16(1): 715.
• Healy, W.R. 1975. Terrestrial activity and home range in efts of Notophthalamus viridescens. Am. Midl. Nat. 93(1): 131138.
• Hurlbert, S.H. 1969. The breeding migrations and interhabitat wandering of the vermilionspotted newt Notophthalamus viridescens (Rafinesque). Ecol. Monogr. 39: 465488.
• Oldham, M.J. and D.A. Sutherland. 1986. Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary. Essex Region Conservation Authority and World Wildlife Fund Canada, Toronto.
• Sousa, P.J. 1985. Habitat suitability index models: redspotted newt. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv., Washington.
• Tyning, T.F. 1990. A guide to amphibians and reptiles. Little, Brown, Boston, MA.

Canadian Great Lakes Frogs and Toads

The American toad (Bufo americanus) ranges throughout the Great Lakes. It prefers shallow, warm, temporary pools; overwinters on land, preferably in sandy soils.

Fowler's toad (Bufo woodhousei fowleri) is found only on the north shore of Lake Erie, Long Point. This toad breeds amongst ponds developed behind beach ridges; forages along beeches and woodlands further inland; hibernates within sandy beaches.

The Spring peeper (Hyla crucifer) ranges throughout Great Lakes Basin. It breeds in open woodland, temporary ponds with water tolerant shrubs (willow/dogwood) and emergents; forages in woodlands or shrubs & marshes bordering woodlands; overwinters in woodlands.

The Tetraploid grey tree frog (Hyla versicolor) is widespread in central & southern Ontario. This tree frog prefers wetlands with abundant submerged vegetation and access to shrub edge at some location along pond border; forage in woodlands and woodland borders; overwinter on land.

The Diploid grey tree frog (Hyla chrysoscelis) is found around Lake of the Woods, and the NW shore of Lake Superior. This tree frog prefers wetlands with abundant submerged vegetation and access to shrub edge at some location along pond border; forage in woodlands and woodland borders; overwinter on land.

The Midland chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata) is found south of Sudbury in southern and central Ontario. It prefers shallow, sunlit temporary ponds, ditches along roadsides and railway embankments, flooded fields and marshes; forage in open woodlands and fields; hibernate under logs or leaf litter.

The Boreal chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata maculatum) is found in northern Ontario along the NW shore of Lake Superior. This frog prefers shallow, sunlit temporary ponds, ditches along roadsides and railway embankments, flooded fields and marshes; forage in open woodlands and fields; hibernate under logs or leaf litter.

The Wood frog (Rana sylvatica) is widespread. The Wood from is the earliest spring breeder, frequents temporary pools in or near woodlands with emergent vegetation such as willows, sedges, or winter-killed cattails; forages along forest floor, often near seepage areas; hibernates in leaf litter.

The Northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin. It breeds in semi-permanent water in quiet areas of streams, lakes, grassy ponds, marshes and wet meadows; forages in grassy pond / land interface; hibernates in surface mud of ponds and streams.

The Pickerel frog (Rana palustris) is found in Southern Ontario - south of Georgian Bay. The Pickerel frog breeds and forages in pools and streams fed by cool springs and in fens and swamps, sometimes in flooded ditches and around beaver dams; hibernates in mud at bottom of ponds.

The Green frog (Rana clamitans) ranges throughout the Great Lakes Basin. It prefers eutrophic, permanent waters including farm ponds, slow moving rivers, shallow marshes; forages along edges and shore; tadpoles overwinter, adults hibernate at bottom of ponds and rivers.

The Mink frog (Rana septentrion-alis) is found throughout Central and northern Ontario. The Mink from breeds in weed-choked bays, marshy shorelines, swamps and bogs; forages amongst floating plants often some distance from shore; tadpoles overwinter, adults at bottom of ponds.

The Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is found along the north to eastern shore of Lake Superior. It breeds in deep permanent water; forages in ponds; tadpoles overwinter, adults hibernate in mud at bottom of ponds.

Leopard Frog - Rana Pipiens

Design Criteria

References

• Cook, F. R. 1966. Amphibians and reptiles of Saskatchewan. Regina: Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History, Department of Natural Resources.
• . 1984. Introduction to Canadian Amphibians and Reptiles. Ottawa: National Museum of Natural Sciences.
• Corn, P. S., and J. C. Fogleman. 1984. Extinction of Montane Populations of the Northern Leopard Frog (Rana pipiens) in Colorado. Journal of Herpetology 18: 147152.
• Cunjak, R. A. 1986. Winter Habitat of Northern Leopard Frogs, Rana pipiens, in a Southern Ontario Stream. Canadian Journal of Zoology 64: 255257.
• Emery, A. R., A. H. Berst, and K. Lodaira. 1972. Underice Observations of Wintering Sites of Leopard Frogs. Copeia 1972 (1): 123126.
• Hammerson Geoffrey A. 1982. Bullfrog Eliminating Leopard Frogs in Colorado? Herp Review 13 (4): 115116.
• Hine, R. L., B. L. Les, and B. F. Hellmich. 1981. Leopard Frog Populations and Mortality in Wisconsin, 197476. Department of Natural Resources, Madison, Wisconsin.
• McAlpine, D. F., and T. G. Dilworth. 1989. Microhabitat and Prey Size among Three Species of Rana (Anura: Ranidae) sympatric in eastern Canada. Canadian Journal of Zoology 67: 22442252.
• Merrell, D. J. 1977. Life History of the Leopard Frog, Rana pipiens, in Minnesota. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota.
• Niven, B. S., J. C. Moore, and M. G. Stewart. 1982. The Precise Environment of Some WellKnown Animals X. The Leopard Frog (Rana pipiens). Brisbane, Australia: School of Environmental Studies. AES Paper 6/82. 32 p.
• Roberts, W. E. 1981. What Happened to the Leopard Frogs? Alberta Naturalist 11: 14.
• Seburn, C. N. L., Seburn David C., and C. A. Paszkowski. in press. Northern Leopard Frog (Rana pipiens) Dispersal in Relation to Habitat. Amphibians in Decline: The Report of the Canadian Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force.
• Wassersug, R. J., and E. A. Seibert. 1975. Behavioural Responses of Amphibian Larvae to Variation in Dissolved Oxygen. Copeia 1975 (1): 86103.
• Wershler, C. 1991. Status of the Northern Leopard Frog in Alberta 1990. Alberta Forestry Lands & Wildlife.
• Whitaker, J. O. 1961. Habitat and Food of MouseTrapped Young Rana pipiens and Rana clamitans. Herpetologica 17 (3): 173179.

Green Frog - Rana clamitans

Distribution

Widespread and abundant in Ontario.

Home Range

Shoreline species, using the area closer to shore than bullfrogs.

Food

Adults are carnivorous, stalking spiders, insects, snails, slugs, and aquatic crustaceans like crayfish.
Tadpoles feed continuously on phytoplankton.

Reproduction

Breed from June-August.

Cover/Habitat

Edges of slow streams and rivers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, marshes, swamps, and bogs.

Hibernation

Tadpoles that hatch late - in small crevices between rocks, fallen logs, and branches.
Adults - on land in leaf litter and soil pockets.

Hydrology

Prefer a greater water depth immediately offshore and cooler water than bullfrogs.

Soils/Substrate

In water - muddy bottom.
On land - loose soil.

Design Criteria

References

• Jenssen, T.A. 1967. Food Habits of the Green Frog, Rana clamitans, before and during metamorphosis. Copeia. 1967 (1): 214218.
• McAlpine, D.F. and T.G. Dilworth. 1989. Microhabitat and Prey Size Among Three Species of Rana (Anura: Ranidae) Sympatric in Eastern Canada. Can. J. Zool. 67: 22442252.
• Oldham, M.J. and D.A. Sutherland. 1986. Ontario Herpetofaunal Summary. Essex Region Conservation Authority and World Wildlife Fund Canada, Toronto.
• Tyning, T.F. 1990. A Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles. Little, Brown, Boston, MA.

Bullfrog - Rana catesbeiana

Distribution

Southern Ontario as far north as Nipissing District.

Home Range

Adult males aggressively defend territories. Boundaries are not stationary, but males defend 3-25 m of shoreline.

Food

Tadpoles - aquatic plant material, invertebrates, and dead fish or tadpoles.
Adults - voracious 'sit and wait' predators - fish, mice, moles, bats, snakes, ducklings, birds, and other bullfrogs.

Reproduction

Breed May-July.

Cover/Habitat

Vegetated shoals, sluggish river backwaters and oxbows, farm ponds, reservoirs, marshes, and still waters with tules, dead trees, snags, and twisted roots.

Hibernation

Bury themselves in surface mud and construct protective pits or cave-like holes underwater.
Adults may disappear before frost begins. Bullfrogs are last ranids to emerge in spring.

Hydrology

Permanent water bodies, and prefer warm, still, shallow waters.

Soils/Substrate

Muddy bottom to water body.

Design Criteria

References

• Bury, R.B., and J.A. Whelan. 1984. Ecology and management of the bullfrog. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C.
• Conant, R., and J.T. Collins. 1991. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Houghton, Mifflin, Boston, MA.
• Emlen, S.T. 1968. Territoriality in the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. Copeia. 1968(2): 240243.
• Tyning, T.F. 1990. A guide to amphibians and reptiles. Little, Brown, Boston, MA.

All of the birds listed below rely on marshes to provide habitat for at least part of their life history requirements. Some birds such as pied-billed grebe and least bitterns spend the majority of their life in marshes. Other birds like great blue herons feed in marshes and breed in forested upland sites or on islands, while birds like mourning doves are found across a full range of habitats, of which marshes are just one.

Common Name Latin Name

Representative Species - Canadian Great Lakes Shorebirds, Marsh Birds and Dabbling Ducks

Shorebirds - Charadriidae and Scolopacidae

Distribution

Seventeen shorebird species commonly occur in the Great Lakes Region.
Two major families: plovers and sandpipers.

Food

Opportunistic feeders, selecting invertebrates that are the largest and easiest to capture.
Minimum density of 100 invertebrates per square metre recommended.

Reproduction

Generally, do not breed in Great Lakes except for Kildeer and Spotted Sandpiper.

Cover/Habitat

Mudflats and shallow water (less than 10 cm) are used where there is less than 25% vegetation cover.
Plover family is not as aquatic as the sandpiper family, and are often found in farmer's recently ploughed fields.
Killdeer often breed in quite dry open-areas.

Lookout

Sparsely vegetated islands or exposed mudflats - unobstructed view of predators, proximity to feeding area.

Migration

Spring migration - early April-late June. Fall migration - early July-mid-November.

Hydrology

Slow falling water levels create a continuous supply of food. Thus, control of water levels is important, impoundments may be used.

Soils/Substrate

Muddy soils, where invertebrate abundance is highest.

Figure 15: Water depths, habitat types, and shorebird guild use within five elevational zones for one managed wetland unit. April 1 indicates initial flooding depths within zones (45cm gauge depth) and May 1 indicates flooding depths after gradual drawdown (25cm gauge depth). Water depths are measured at lowest elevation of pools. (29k gif)

Design Criteria

References

• Bradstreet, M.S.W., G.W. Page, and W.G. Johnston. 1977. Shorebirds at Long Point, Lake Erie, 19661971: Seasonal Occurrence, Habitat Preference, and Variation in Abundance. Can. Field Nat. 91:225236.
• Burger, J. 1984. Abiotic Factors Affecting Migrant Shorebirds, p.172. In J. Burger and B.L. Olla [ed.] Behavior of Marine Animals vol. 6. Shorebirds. Migration and Foraging Behavior. Plenum Press, New York.
• Colwell, M.A., and L.W. Oring. 1988. Habitat Use by Breeding and Migrating Shorebirds in Southcentral Saskatchewan. Wilson Bull. 100:554566.
• Eldridge, J. 1992. Management of Habitat for Breeding and Migrating Shorebirds in the Midwest. U.S. Fish Wildl. Leaflet 13.2.14. 6 p.
• Handel, C.M., and R.E. Gill, Jr. 1992. Roosting Behavior of Premigratory Dunlins (Calidris alpina). Auk 109:5772.
• Hands, H.M., M.R. Ryan, J.W. Smith. 1991. Migrant Shorebird use of Marsh, Moistsoil, and Flooded Agricultural Habitats. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 19:457464.
• Helmers, D.L. 1992. Shorebird Management Manual. Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Manomet, MA. 58 p.
• Kelly, P.R., and H.L. Cogswell. 1979 Movements and Habitat use by Wintering Populations of Willets and Marbled Godwits, p. 6982. In F.A. Pitelka [ed.] Studies in Avian Biol. no. 2. Shorebirds in Marine Environments. Cooper Ornithological Society.
• Rundle, W.D., and L.H. Fredrickson. 1981. Managing Seasonally Flooded Impoundments for Migrant Rails and Shorebirds. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 9:8087.

Dabbling Ducks

Distribution

Nine species commonly occur in the Great Lakes region. Extensive breeding and summer moulting occurs in the region.

Food

Ducklings all feed on invertebrates, aquatic seeds and tubers.
Adults feed primarily on aquatic and upland seeds, aquatic tubers, vegetation, invertebrates and some species make extensive use of waste agricultural grain during autumn.

Reproduction

All species breed in the Great Lakes region. The area is extremely important for the reproduction of most species.

Cover/Habitat

Habitat requirements range from treed swamps to open prairie like wetlands. All wetlands of the region are used to a certain extent by this group.

Lookout

Scattered islands, floating logs, cattail mats and muskrat houses that provide good resting areas free from extensive disturbance are important.

Connectivity

Ready access to water for ducklings during periods of drought is important. Young ducklings will not survive extensive overland travel.

Migration

Spring migration begins in February and ends in May. Autumn migration begins in August and is essentially complete by mid December.

Hydrology

Water level fluctuations and actual drought is important to recycle nutrients so that large invertebrate blooms result on reflooding. Such blooms are extremely important for good duckling production.

Soils/Substrate

Wetland soils with high fertility, preferably those on a limestone substrate are important for good dabbling duck production.

Design Criteria

References

• Cadman, M.D., P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M. Helleiner. 1987. Atlas of the breeding birds of Ontario. University of Waterloo Press, Waterloo. 617 p.
• Dennis, D.G. 1974. Breeding Pair Surveys of Waterfowl in Southern Ontario. In Canadian Wildlife Service Waterfowl Studies in Eastern Canada 1969 - 73. Edited by H. Boyd. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series No. 29. pp. 53 - 56.
• Dennis, D.G. and Chandler, R.E. 1974. Waterfowl Use of the Ontario Shorelines of the Southern Great Lakes During Migration. In Canadian Wildlife Service Waterfowl Studies in Eastern Canada 1969 - 73. Edited by H. Boyd. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series No. 29. pp. 58 - 63.
• Ross, R.K. 1984. Migrant Waterfowl Use of the Major Shorelines of Eastern Ontario. In Waterfowl Studies in Ontario, 1973 - 81. Edited by S.G. Curtis, D.G. Dennis and H. Boyd. Occasional Paper No. 54, Canadian Wildlife Service.

Green Heron - Butorides striatus

Distribution

Fairly common in southern and eastern Ontario, including Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake St. Clair, and the eastern shore of Lake Huron and Manitoulin Island.

Home Range

Preferred marsh size not known, but have bred on marshes as small as 1 ha.
Nest in deciduous and coniferous trees well removed from water (500-1000 m).

Food

Feed along water's edge, perching and waiting for prey.
Combination of fish and invertebrates including minnows, sunfish, catfish, white perch, cyprinids, crayfish, insects, snails, and leeches. Occasionally amphibians, small snakes, and small mammals are also consumed.

Reproduction

Nests often built in scrubby vegetation such as willow or sumac growing in or overhanging water 3-5 m above the water, but can be up to 0.8 km from nearest water, in tree stands not just adjacent woodlots.

Cover/Habitat

Aquatic habitat with bushes, thickets, or small trees. Supporting vegetation may provide dense cover, or may be dead and provide little cover.

Migration

Spring arrival late April-May. Fall departure by late September.

Hydrology

Do not use wetlands with acidic, nutrient-poor water. Foraging would be hindered by high turbidity.

Design Criteria

References

• Bent, A.C. 1926. Life histories of North American marsh birds. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 135. 490 p.
• Cadman, M.D., P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M. Helleiner. 1987. Atlas of the breeding birds of Ontario. University of Waterloo Press, Waterloo. 617 p.
• Campbell, R.W., N.K. Dawe, I. McTaggartCowan, J.M. Cooper, G.W. Kaiser, and M.C.E. McNall. 1990. The birds of British Columbia. Volume II. Royal British Columbia Museum. 636 p.
• Cramp, S. 1977. Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The birds of the western palearctic. Volume I. Ostrich to ducks. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 567 p.
• Dickerman, R.W. and G. Gavino. 1969. Studies of a nesting colony of green herons at San Blas, Nayarit, Mexico. Living Bird 8:95111.
• Ehrlich, P.R., D.S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. T he Birder's handbook. Simon and Schuster, Inc. New York. 785 p.
• Gibbs, J.P., J.R. Longcore, D.G. McAuley, J.K. Ringleman. 1991. Use of wetland habitats by selected nongame water birds in Maine. U.S. Fish Wildl Serv., Fish Wildl Res. 9. 57 p.
• Godfrey, W.E. 1986. Birds of Canada. National Museum of Natural Sciences. Ottawa, Canada. 595 p.
• Kaiser, M.S., and F.A. Reid. 1987. A comparison of greenbacked heron nesting in two freshwater ecosystems. Colonial Waterbirds 10:7883.
• Kushlan, J.A. 1976. Feeding behavior of North American herons. Auk 93:8694.
• Kushlan, J.A. 1977. Feeding ecology of wading birds, p. 249297. In R.A. Sprunt IV, J.C. Ogden, and S. Winckler [ed.] Wading birds. National Audobon Society, New York. 381 p.
• Meyerriecks, A.J. 1960. Comparative breeding behavior of four species of North American herons. Publ. Nuttal Ornith. Club No. 2. 158 p.
• Palmer, R.S. 1962. Handbook of North American birds. Vol 1. Loons through Flamingos. Yale University Press, New Haven CA. 567 p.
• Weir, R.D. 1989. Birds of the Kingston region. Quarry Press, Inc. Kingston, Ont. 608 p.

Sora - Porzana carolina

Distribution

Common but reclusive marsh bird of the rail family.
Throughout Great Lakes.
Soras have a distinctive call.

Home Range

Breeds on wetlands of all sizes from less than 1 ha to greater than 25 ha. Breeding territory 0.025 ha to 0.2 ha. Density of breeding pairs 0.4-20 pairs per hectare. Typically about 1 pair per hectare.

Food

Seeds of marsh plants, including wild rice, sedge, grasses, smartweeds, and bulrushes. Sometimes duckweed and invertebrates like grasshoppers and snails.

Reproduction

Nests woven of dead emergent vegetation such as cattails or sedges, suspended 5-15 cm above the water in emergent vegetation.

Cover/Habitat

Shallow water emergent vegetation marshes. Robust growth of diverse emergent, preferably food producing vegetation is preferred.

Connectivity

Probably important in facilitating dispersal.

Migration

Spring arrival is late April-early May. Fall departure complete by late September.

Hydrology

Standing water pre-requisite for nesting, usually less than 30 cm.

Design Criteria

References

• Berger, A.J. 1951. Nesting density of Virginia and Sora rails in Michigan. Condor 53:202.
• Brown, M., and J.J. Dinsmore. 1986. Implications of marsh size and isolation for marsh bird management. J. Wildl. Man. 50:392397.
• Campbell, R.W., N.K. Dawe, I. McTaggartCowan, J.M. Cooper, G.W. Kaiser, and M.C.E. McNall. 1990. The birds of British Columbia. Volume II. Royal British Columbia Museum. 636 p.
• Eddleman, W.R., F.L. Knopf, B.Meanley, F.A.Reid, and R. Zembal. 1988. Conservation of North American Rallids. Wilson Bull. 100:458475.
• Ehrlich, P.R., D.S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. T he Birder's handbook. Simon and Schuster, Inc. New York. 785 p.
• Fannucchi, W.A., G.T. Fannucchi, and L.E. Nauman. 1986. Effects of harvesting wild rice, Zizania aquatica, on soras, Porzana carolina. Can. FieldNat. 100:533536.
• Gibbs, J.P., J.R. Longcore, D.G. McAuley, J.K. Ringleman. 1991. Use of wetland habitats by selected nongame water birds in Maine. U.S. Fish Wildl Serv., Fish Wildl Res. 9. 57 p.
• Glahn, J.F. 1974. Study of breeding rails with recorded calls in northcentral Colorado. Wilson Bull. 86:206214.
• Godfrey, W.E. 1986. Birds of Canada. National Museum of Natural Sciences. Ottawa, Canada. 595 p.
• Griese, H.J., R.A. Ryder, and C.E. Braun. 1980. Spatial and temporal distribution of rails in Colorado. Wilson Bull. 92:96102.
• Horak, G.J. 1970. A comparative study of the foods of the Sora and Virginia Rail. Wilson Bull. 82:206213.
• Irish, J. 1974. Postbreeding territorial behavior of Soras and Virginia Rails in several Michigan marshes. JackPine Warbler 52:115124.
• Johnson, R.R., and J.J. Dinsmore. 1985. Broodrearing and postbreeding habitat use by Virginia Rails and Soras. Wilson Bull. 97:551554.
• Johnson, R.R., and J.J. Dinsmore. 1986. Habitat use by breeding Virginia rails and soras. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:387392.
• Kaufmann, G.W. 1989. Breeding ecology of the sora, Porzana carolina, and the Virginia rail, Rallus limicola. Can. FieldNat. 103:270282.
• Lowther, J.K. 1977. Nesting biology of the sora at Vermilion, Alberta. Can. FieldNat. 91:6367.
• Meanly, B. 1960. Fall food of the sora rail in the Arkansas rice fields. J. Wildl. Manage. 24:339.
• Meanly, B. 1965. Early fall food and habitat of the sora in the Patuxent River Marsh, Maryland. Chesapeake Science. 6:235237.
• Pospichal, L.B., and W.H. Marshall. 1954. A field study of sora rail and Virginia rail in central Minnesota. Flicker 26:232.
• Ripley, S.D., and B.M. Beehler. 1985. Rails of the world, a compilation of new information, 19751983 (Aves: Rallidae). Smithsonian Contr. Zool. No. 417. 28 p.
• Rundle, W.D., and L.H. Fredrickson. 1981. Managing seasonally flooded impoundments for migrant rails and shorebirds. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 9:8087.
• Rundle, W.D., and M.W. Sayre. 1983. Feeding ecology of migrant soras in southeastern Missouri. J. Wildl. Manage. 47:11531159.
• Sayre, M.W., and W.D. Rundle. 1984. Comparison of habitat use by migrant soras and Virginia rails. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:599605.
• Walkinshaw, L.H. 1940. Summer life of the Sora Rail. Auk 57:153168.
• Webster, C.G. 1964. Fall foods of soras from two habitats in Connecticut. J. Wildl. Manage. 28:163165.
• Weir, R.D. 1989. Birds of the Kingston region. Quarry Press, Inc. Kingston, Ont. 608 p.

Black Tern - Chlidonias niger

Distribution

Widely distributed throughout the Great Lakes, but considered threatened because of declining populations and loss of habitat.

Food

Adults feed on aquatic and flying insects, small fish, and occasionally, tadpoles, snails, and crayfish.
Young are fed a variety of insects and small fish.
Often forage over open water, but will glean insects from vegetation and forage over meadows or agricultural fields.

Reproduction

Breed late May to mid July.
Nest in loose aggregations of 3-30 pairs with nests spaced 3-30 m apart. Will defend an area 0.5-3 m in radius around the nest.

Cover/Habitat

Large wetlands, greater than 5 ha (if part of a complex), and mainly greater than 20 ha.
Prefer 50:50 ratio of emergent vegetation to open water.

Lookout

Perching sites quite important, may get 1-2 dozen perched on dead snags near their nesting area.

Migration

Spring arrival mid May onwards. Fall departure early August.

Hydrology

Usually occupy habitats with still or gently flowing water. Water quality high enough to produce adequate fish and aquatic invertebrates. Water depth varies, 0.5-1.5 m.

Design Criteria

References

• Baggerman, B., G.P. Baerends, H.S. Heikens, and J.H. Mook. 1956. Observations on the behaviour of the Black Tern, Chlidonias n. niger (L.), in the breeding area. Ardea 44:171.
• Bailey, P.F. 1977. The breeding biology of the black tern (Chlidonias niger surinamensis Gmelin). M.Sc. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Oshkosh. 67 p.
• Bent, A.C. 1921. Life histories of North American gulls and terns. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 113. 345 p.
• Bergman, R.D., P. Swain, and M.W. Weller. 1970. A comparative study of nesting Forster's and Black Terns. Wilson Bull. 82:435444.
• Cadman, M.D., P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M. Helleiner. 1987. Atlas of the breeding birds of Ontario. University of Waterloo Press, Waterloo. 617 p.
• Campbell, R.W., N.K. Dawe, I. McTaggartCowan, J.M. Cooper, G.W. Kaiser, and M.C.E. McNall. 1990. The birds of British Columbia. Volume II. Royal British Columbia Museum. 636 p.
• Cramp, S. 1985. Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The birds of the western palearctic. Volume IV. Terns to woodpeckers. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 960 p.
• Cuthbert, N.L. 1954. A nesting study of the Black Tern in Michigan. Auk 71:3663.
• DuBois A.D. 1931. Black Terns feeding young in Minneapolis. Oologist 48:7273.
• Dunn, E.H. 1979. Nesting biology and development of young in Ontario black terns. Can. FieldNat. 93:276281.
• Ehrlich, P.R., D.S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. T he Birder's handbook. Simon and Schuster, Inc. New York. 785 p.
• Gerson, H. 1988. Status report on the Black Tern,Chlidonias niger in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. 51 p.
• Godfrey, W.E. 1986. Birds of Canada. National Museum of Natural Sciences. Ottawa, Canada. 595 p.
• Hands, H.A., R.D. Drobney, and M.R. Ryan. 1989. Status of the least bittern in the northcentral United States. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Federal Building, Fort Snelling, Twin Cities, MN. 13 p.
• McAtee, W.L., and F.E.L. Beal. 1912. Some common game, aquatic, and rapacious birds in relation to Man. U.S. Dep. Agric. Farmer's Bull. 497. 30 p.
• Pittman, H.H. 1927. The Black Terns of Saskatchewan. Condor 29:140-143
• Rabenold, P.P. 1988. 1988 survey of black terns (Chlidonias niger) breeding in Indiana. Unpubl. Rep. to Ind. Dep. Nat. Resour., Indianapolis. 16 p.
• Speirs, J.M. 1985. Birds of Ontario. Volume 2. Natural Heritage/Matural History Inc., Toronto.
• Weir, R.D. 1989. Birds of the Kingston region. Quarry Press, Inc. Kingston, Ont. 608 p.
• Weller, M.W., and C.S. Spatcher. 1965. Role of habitat in the distribution and abundance of marsh birds. Agric. and Home Econ. Exp. Stn. Spec. Rep. 43. Iowa State University, Ames. 31 p.

Belted Kingfisher - Ceryle alcyon

Distribution

Breed throughout the Great Lakes. Occasionally overwinter in areas where water remains open, but most migrate south.

>Home Range

Occur on wetlands of all sizes, but more common and abundant on larger wetlands.
Also occur in riparian situations along rivers and streams.

>Food

Capture fish by diving into the water.
Sometimes, when fish are less accessible, as when turbidity is high or ice is present, crayfish comprise a large proportion of the diet.
Other food items include amphibians, reptiles, insects, young birds, and small mammals.

>Reproduction

Breed April-July.

>Cover/Habitat

Highly territorial and limited by nest sites.
Excavate burrows in vertical earth banks to nest. Banks may be natural (e.g. eroded stream banks) or man-made (e.g. road and railway cuts, gravel pits, land fill sites).
Usually 0.5-1 m from top and 1.5-6 m from bottom of bank on or near water body. Prefer open country, but perches are required.

>Lookout

Elevated perches such as trees, posts, and telephone wires important for foraging.

>Connectivity

Probably follow streams, creeks, and rivers if nesting in banks within heavily wooded areas.

>Migration

Spring arrival early April-early May. Fall departure late September-late October.

>Hydrology

Forage in still waters and streams, usually shallow.
Fishing confined to maximum depth of 60 cm, and most done at 12-15 cm.
In streams, riffles are important foraging sites.
Wave action is a deterrent to foraging.

>Soils/Substrate

Nests built in well drained, sandy clay soil. Minimum sand content of 75% and maximum clay content of 7%. Rocks and tree roots impede, but do not prohibit nest building.

Design Criteria

References

• Bent, A.C. 1940. Life histories of North American cuckoos, goatsuckers, hummingbirds, and their allies. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 176. 506p.
• Brooks, R.P., and W.J. Davis. 1987. Habitat selection by breeding Belted Kingfishers (Ceryle alcyon). Amer. Midl. Nat. 117:6370.
• Cadman, M.D., P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M. Helleiner. 1987. Atlas of the breeding birds of Ontario. University of Waterloo Press, Waterloo. 617 p.
• Campbell, R.W., N.K. Dawe, I. McTaggartCowan, J.M. Cooper, G.W. Kaiser, and M.C.E. McNall. 1990. The birds of British Columbia. Volume II. Royal British Columbia Museum. 636 p.
• Cramp, S. 1985. Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The birds of the western palearctic. Volume IV. Terns to woodpeckers. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 960 p.
• Cornwell, G.W. 1963. Observations on the breeding biology and behavior of a nesting population of Belted Kingfishers. Condor 65:426431.
• Davis, W.J. 1982. Territory size in Megaceryle alcyon along a stream habitat. Auk 99:353362.
• Eipper, A.W. 1956. Differences in vulnerability of the prey of nesting kingfishers. J. Wildl. Manage. 20:177183.
• Ehrlich, P.R., D.S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye. 1988. The Birder's handbook. Simon and Schuster, Inc. New York. 785 p.
• Fry, C.H. and K. Fry. 1992. Kingfishers, beeeaters, and rollers. A handbook. Christopher Helm Ltd., London. 324 p.
• Gibbs, J.P., J.R. Longcore, D.G. McAuley, J.K. Ringleman. 1991. Use of wetland habitats by selected nongame water birds in Maine. U.S. Fish Wildl Serv., Fish Wildl Res. 9. 57 p.
• Godfrey, W.E. 1986. Birds of Canada. National Museum of Natural Sciences. Ottawa, Canada. 595 p.
• Hamas, M.J. 1974. Human ncursion and nesting sites of the Belted Kingfisher. Auk 91:835836.
• Prose, B.L. 1985. Habitat suitability index models: belted kingfisher. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Biol. Rep. 82(10.87). 22 p.
• Salyer, J.C. and K.F. Lagler. 1949. The eastern belted kingfisher, Megaceryle alcyon alcyon (Linnaeus), in relation to fish management. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 76:97117.
• Terres, J.K. 1968. Kingfishers eating bullfrog tadpoles. Auk 85:140.
• Weir, R.D. 1989. Birds of the Kingston region. Quarry Press, Inc. Kingston, Ont. 608 p.
• White, H.C. 1953. The eastern belted kingfisher in the Maritime provinces. Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 97. 44p.

Canadian Great Lakes Semi-aquatic mammals

Representative Species - Canadian Great Lakes Semi-aquatic Mammals

Mink - Mustela vison

Distribution

>Throughout Great Lakes Basin to the tree line.

Home Range

>Activity generally restricted to narrow strips of land adjacent to bodies of water (within 100 m of water).
With abundant and predictable food, males occupy 2.5-5.5 km of shoreline, and females 0.5-3 km.
Do not occupy same den on many consecutive days, so many dens required in each home range.

Food

>Generalists using both aquatic and terrestrial sources, usually mammals, including lagomorphs and small rodents, and sometimes fish. Some amphibians, waterfowl, passerine, and aquatic invertebrates are important in spring and summer.

Reproduction

>Dens created under trees, boulders, and in banks. Will use burrows of other animals.

Cover/Habitat

>Permanent water, wide zones of emergent vegetation and irregular shorelines are preferred.
More activity where willow trees, saplings, and shrubs are dense.
Eutrophic lakes better than oligotrophic because of potential productivity.

Connectivity

>Prefer to travel along undisturbed shorelines

Hibernation

>Active year-round.

Hydrology

>Streams, rivers, lakes, freshwater and saltwater marshes, and shorelines are used.

Design Criteria

References

• Allen, A. W. 1986. Habitat suitability index models: mink, revised. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Biol. Rep. 82 (10.127).
• Arnold, T.W. 1986. The ecology of prairie mink during the waterfowl breeding season. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Missouri, Columbia.
• Arnold, T.W., and E.K. Fritzell. 1987. Food habits of prairie mink during the waterfowl breeding season. Can. J. Zool. 65: 23222324.
• Arnold, T.W., and E.K. Fritzell. 1990. Habitat use by male mink in relation to wetland characteristics and avian prey abundance. Can. J. Zool. 68: 22052208.
• Dobbyn, J.S. 1994. Atlas of the Mammals of Ontario. Federation of Ontario Naturalists: Toronto.
• Eagle, T.C., and J.S. Whitman. 1987. Mink. In Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America. Edited by M. Novak, J.A. Baker, M.E. Obbard, and B. Malloch. Ont. Trappers Association and Ont. Ministry of Natural Resources. pp. 615624.
• Racey, G.D., and D.L. Euler. 1983. Changes in mink habitat and food selection as influenced by cottage developments in central Ontario. J. Appl. Ecol. 20: 387402.

Muskrat - Ondatra zibethicus

Distribution

Throughout Great Lakes Basin, less common north of Lake Huron.

Home Range

Radius from lodge of 30 to 100 m, influenced by density and habitat quality. 1-4 muskrats per lodge.

Food

Shoots, roots, bulbs and leaves of aquatic plants, especially cattail, bulrush, and reed canary grass are preferred.
Crop species and some animal material is also eaten.

Reproduction

Protected site in permanent water required for young, usually takes form of floating lodge of vegetation or bank burrow.

Cover/Habitat

Emergent aquatic vegetation preferred (cattail and bulrush).
Highest population densities where equal open water and emergent vegetation.

Hibernation

Active year-round, but require waterbody that does not freeze to bottom (at least two metres deep).

Hydrology

Permanent water in marshes, ponds, sloughs, lakes, ditches, streams, and rivers.
Water must not freeze to bottom.
15-30 cm of water required for lodge building.

Soils/Substrate

Marshes on Precambrian Shield are less productive than those on glacial till and other soils.
Good soils required for burrow excavation.

Design Criteria

References

• Boutin, S., and Birkenholz, D.E. 1987. Muskrat and roundtailed muskrat. In Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America. Edited by M. Novak, J.A. Baker, M.E. Obbard, and B. Malloch. Ont. Trappers Association and Ont. Ministry of Natural Resources. pp. 315325.
• Dobbyn, J.S. 1994. Atlas of the Mammals of Ontario. Federation of Ontario Naturalists: Toronto.
• Dozier, H.L. 1950. Muskrat trapping on the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge, New York 1943-1948. J. Wildl. Manage. 14: 403-412.
• Errington, P.L. 1963. Muskrat populations. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames.
• Lack, M.J., Pereston, W.T., Adams, K.B., Vogt, F.D., and Houppert, J.C. 1990. Summer foraging patterns and diet selection of muskrats inhabiting a fen wetland. Can. J. Zool. 68: 11631167.
• Marinelli, L., and Messier, F. 1993. Space use and the social system of muskrats. Can. J. Zool. 71: 869875.
• Proulx, G., and F.G. Gilbert. 1983. The ecology of the muskrat, Ondatra zibethicus, at Luther Marsh, Ontario. Can. FieldNat. 97: 377390.
• Schwartz, C.W., and Schwartz, E.R. 1959. The wild mammals of Missouri. Univ. Missouri Press and Missouri. Conserv. Comm., Columbia, MO.
• Weller, M.W. 1978. Management of freshwater marshes for wildlife. In Ecological processes and management potential. Edited by R.E. Good, D.F. Whigham, and R.L. Simpson. Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 267-284.
• Weller, M.W. 1981. Freshwater marshes: Ecology and wildlife management. Univ. of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.

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